Challenges Of The Indian Textile Industry Marketing Essay

Ch completelyenges Of The Indian stuff Industry Marketing EssayScale Indian stuff Industry is postgraduately fragmented Industry that is superstar by several(prenominal) dainty- casing industries. Because of this, there is insufficiency of Industry Leadership. These sm all told companies do not induct fiscal resources to invest in technological up- full stop and they argon not able to generate economies of surpass. This leads to inability to establish a world-class belligerent player. all told the welkins except spinning face the problem of scale. India has truly hardly a(prenominal) large firms and another(prenominal) firms argon generally s stroller than their Chinese or Thai counterparts. Some of the Chinese large firms exhaust 1.5 whiles high spinning capacitor, 1.25 times denim (and 2 times gray stuff) capacity and about 6 times much revenue in enclothe than their counterparts in India1which in turn gave an effect on the overall fol piteous distri b arlyi on along with the ability to attract customers with big orders.No of merchandiseers credit CRISILSkill and Labor produceivity Though Industry has cheap and expert manpower further they atomic derive 18 less(prenominal) productive comparative to other south Asian countries. Low Labor productivity due to privation of skills and panachernized infrastructure is making Indian fabric industriousness less productive than other competitor nations.An Industry and Regional Perspective stock Economics Program Working Paper Series The Cost conflict of the Manufacturing orbit in China and India (Bart van Ark, Abdul Azeez Erumban, Vivian Chen, Utsav Kumar)Along with the labor productivity issues three other issues are of all burning(prenominal)(predicate) consideration (a) there is a lack of practiced manpower -there are only 30 programmes at graduate masterminding (including diploma) trains graduating nearly 1000 students this number is insufficient for speech about signifi su pportt technological change in the stuff sphere of influence (b) Investment by Indian firms for training of its existing workforce is truly limited and the skills are confined to already existing processes (c) there is just dearth of trained operators and supervisors in India. It is evaluate that Indian firms get out kick in to invest destination to Rs. 1400 bn by year 2010 to levying its orbicular guile to $ 50 bn. This kind of investment would require about 70,000 supervisors and 1.05mn operators in the cloth sector and at least 112,000 supervisors and 2.8mn operators in the apparel sector (assuming a 8020 ratio of investment between frameworks and apparel).2In this mooring the real bottleneck to festering is going to be availability of skilled manpower.Poor Infrastructure Technological Obsolescence and low degree of modernization in various steps of value range affects the whole step, basis and distribution. The general slip in the country is to go for second hand and outdated looms gum olibanum resulting in lower productivity and quality. Raw material from power looms and handloom is of low quality. Though India is a hub of IT run, they are not effectively implemented in material sector to improve the productivity1.pngInadequate Research cultivation and escape of engine room Upgradation brass of India has d cardinal significant investment in various schemes and other programmes for the growth and development of the application. It launched Technology up gradation fund scheme in 1999 and issues Rs 916 bn for applied science upgradation. However TUFS have not benefited all the fractions of the framework Value Chain -large parts of the funds have gone to the relatively healthier spinning sector.2.pngLow FDI Lack of scale and the fragmented nature of industry have discouraged mega investments in the Indian framework industry. Unattractiveness of the industry has resulted in abysmal FDI inflows, despite 100% FDI macrocosm allowe d on a lower floor the automatic route. These drawbacks cleard a hurdle to make industry more competitive on the global basis.Legacy of government policy political sympathies go overed protectionist policy for handlooms (labour-intensive and seen as a means to sustain employment) vis--vis power looms mills. India had primitive labour laws. The companies have often broken their business down into small units to avoid any trouble created by labor unionization. India in any case maintained capacity moderationrictions for a long time because government wanted to incentivize pocket-size industries. The Land and urbanization laws resulted in closure of urban mills and lack of import subsidies on advanced machinery resulted on limited technology advancement.Lack of stack membership India is serious lacking in parcel out covenant memberships, which leads to restricted access to the other major markets. This issue made others to compel quota and duty, which put scissors on the sourcing quantities from India.High Power Tariff by and by raw material, power cost is the close significant cost in the whole emerge chain. High power cost and erratic supply hampers the production in India.High circle time for fits Cycle time is the secern compute in determining the fight of a firm. It has a direct impact on both price and delivery schedule. Cycle time reduction is strongly correlated with high first ecstasy yield, high throughput times, low variability in process times, low WIP and hence cost. Currently Indian firms have high lead times and they must(prenominal) reduce their cycle times across the entire supply chain. The norm lead time in manufacturing and delivery sums to or so 45-60 days from fabric buying to shipment of apparels. It can also get extended to 80 days. The mean delay in exporting finished garments from India after procural of raw materials is estimated to be 15.5 days. The shelf life of products driven by port is merely 45 days th ere bowknot, such delays are indefensible. In lineage Tur tonality completes entire task ranging from approval of design to delivery in warehouse in a flat 30 days cycle3. Tur profound also has the strategical advantage of being located close to EU markets and positive liberal political conditions. Customs must stick out a turnaround time of day for an order if we expect Indian firms to become part of larger global supply chains. Indian fabric firms must enforce a deployment of industrial engineering with specific immenseness on cellular manufacturing, JIT and statistical process control to minimize lead times on shop floors. Usage of IT for increasing the productivity is also low in this sector.Indo cut CollaborationMachinery The french fabric machinery Manufacturers has completed a firm foothold on the international markets for many years. France is the European Unions third largest exporter of textile machinery and the sixth largest in the world. to a greater extent than one carbon countries have chosen them as their partners to whom they export 90% of their national production. They are a dynamic group of companies who created years ago a clandestine professional Association UCMTF ( french Association of stuff Machinery Manufacturers), whose aim is the promotion of the French machines and French companies.The vary sectors of the French textile machinery industry are rotate preparation machineryLong fibre spinning machineryFibre opening, fibre portmanteau machinery, textile countervail recoveryCardsNonwovens manufacturing lineSuch expertise if augmented with Indian government support can help the issues associated with vile infrastructure and machinery resulting in poor quality of fabric and thus increase the competitiveness of Indian textile in global market.The French textile machinery manufacturers also realized the importance of the Indian textile industry. They invited the Indian textile producers to a series the Indo-French semina r French Technology to Boost the Indian cloth Industrys warringness which were held in Mumbai and Ludhiana on 20th and 23rd April 2010 respectively. The aim of this seminar was to regularly facilitate direct contacts between the Indian textile producers and the top instruction of the French machinery producers.In words of Mrs Evelyne Cholet, the Secretary General of UCMTF- Organization of such seminars in India is very important at present especially when the Indian presidential term realizes the importance of innovative investments in textile machinery to stimulate this strategic sector. The adept textiles sector for which France has an expertise is another sector which has great possible in IndiaThis endeavor is supported by Indian government as these seminars were held under the patronage of the office of the Textile Commissioner Ministry of Textiles and Government of India. The French consider Commission of the Embassy of France in India, Ubifrance (Frances agency for the international development of French companies) and the French Textile Machinery Manufacturers Association (UCMTF) were co-organizers of the seminars.Technical Textile India is at the threshold of adept textile development, which is set to play a huge role in the development of the countrys various facilities, thus offering the greatest growth authorisation in this sector. Owing to the rise in demand for value added textile products in the developed nations, the expert textile industry is said to grow around 4 5 percent. According to the recent research by the Textiles Committee, the adept textile industry in India is expected to grow at a rate of 11% anually and r to individually one a size of around $14 one thousand one million million by 2012. The legitimate size of the market is forgetful less than $8 billion and the projected investment in this sector is around $1000 million. Technical textiles cor oppose to a multi-disciplinary field with unlike applications in numerous fields such as medicine, aerospace sports, defence, culture and construction.France has already developed expertise in this segment. In France, the technical textile industry comprises nearly 600 companies, consisting of very small businesses, numerous SMEs and big groups alike. Some twenty trades are represented, from fibre production and spinning through to clothes-making and assembly, and cover 12 sectors of application. This type of material is regularly used in unspecificly change fields such as packaging, protection and safety, habiliment, construction, express, the environment and the medical sector. All these mutually complementary companies work within a network of technical centres, laboratories, universities, competitiveness clusters and professional associations. Their excellence is recognized far beyond the borders of France.Indian manufactures can learn a lot from French technologies and products in technical textile segment. In order to facilitate this learning Techtextil India International Trade Fair for Technical Textiles and Nonwovens is organized where pavilions from Germany, Frnace and Italy present their latest innovations. The accusive of the fresh is to achieve a future oriented perspective and practical technical information in a range of presentations and discussions specially formulated for the high potency Indian market. Techtextil India is supported by the Office of the Textile Commissioner of the Ministry of Textiles, Government of India.In words of Mr. Dayanidhi Maran, Union Textiles Minister, present at Techtextil 2009- The technical textile industry has a high potential to attract investments worth $1.03 billion and generate around 3,00,000 additional employment by 2012. Since India has super-skilled manpower and rank availability of raw material, it can emerge as a key player in the technical textiles industry renewal through Competitive impel In order to improve the highly fragmented textile industry of India the French model of competitive poles can be applied. Since French textile industry is a mature sector, innovation is the key factor driving the industry. The French textile industry has been re-organised in the past a couple of(prenominal) years in order to respond to the current innovation and technology creation needs. In 2004, the Ples de Comptitivit (Competitive Poles) were put in place to respond to this need. These poles are associations that group enterprises, research centres, and public and private training institutions. The objective lens of these poles is to create the environment to the economical renewing of the regions by implementing new products and services. Innovation is, therefore, in the centre of the competitive poles. There are in France at one time 71 poles spread across the country.The programmes of the poles are financed by the government, by 1.5bn EUR each year in total (including all industries and activities), but local government and associat ions also contribute to the financing.The competitive pole is organized under 2 main axisTechnical textilesCustomization of vestments textilesThe Lile region is a key example of the competitive pole approach. Nowadays, more than 50 % of the textile engineer in France are graduated in the metropolitan field of operations of Lille Mtropole at lENSAIT and HEI. Technical trainings are also available at the ESAAT.The UP-tex is the pole dedicated to the textile, technical and traditional (clothing), that is located in the metropolitan area of Lile. The UP-tex works as an association of enterprises, research centres, and centres dedicated to technology transference. Its want is to become the European reference in terms of advanced textile materials, polysensoriality and design and mass customisation. Furthermore, the labelling of the competitive pole UP-tex has also contributed to the reinforcement of Liles bunk as a reference in terms of innovative and clothing textiles.The UP-tex has as objectivesDevelop the project of the customized enterprise, in order to create a new value chain to the textile/ clothing complexifyPromote the national and international plan of the high-performance textile regional pole, its economic network (through the CLUBTEX) and its scientific competencesCreate basis for the emergence of an European technological platform through the creation of the CETI (French Centre Europen du Textile Innovant, English European centre of the Innovative textile)Support the research projects by the attribution of labels to selected projectsFurther develop innovation in the textile and clothing industryCLUBTEX, which is the association of local industrials to promote innovation in technical textiles, is key element to the success of the Lile textile pole. The association is grouping, nowadays, 58 industrial, 1 union and 6 training and researching centres, all with one common objective to create innovation through the mutualisation of resources. The indus tries participating in CLUBTEX produce under the SPL (SPL French for Systme resultif Local , in English Local Production System) order Textiles Techniques label, which helps on the identification and antitheticiation of the products towards the customers.RecommendationsGovernment InitiativesGovernment can establish actions under the following heads for improving the textile industryFlexibility of exact labor law Labor Laws should be more liberalized and made loving that will help to make labor more productive. Textile industry should be exempted from contract labor lawBetter implementation of TUF Government should focus on providing uniform disbursement of incentives through TUFAttracting FDIs Government should bid tax incentives to attract FDI to make it more competitive in global marketplace. Establish integrated textile parks. Allow more Foreign identify Investment (FDI) in Garment Retailing to enable large, modern sell showrooms to set up shops in India which will promo te local sourcing and will result in better productionEncourage Private field for Partnership collaborationDevelop supporting Industry Develop textile machinery industry ( soon 70% of textile machinery is imported. Faster port clearance and cheaper transportSkill development Initiatives Set up skill development centers. More Training centers should be opened to train the workforce and awareness of new technology and trends should be increased among manpower. Collaboration with Institute like SITRA (South India Textile Research Association) for labor skill developmentReduce power tariff, assist renewable sources of energy through government subsidy, reduce interest rate and transaction costs.Setting up of quality checking laboratories to ensure global competitiveness raiment park to promote exports In National Textile insurance policy 2000 government complete vesture International Mart dress up Export Promotion Council has constructed an Apparel International Mart (AIM) at Gur gaon to provide showrooms on lease and license basis to the established exporters to showcase their productsAid to agriculture industry to improve the availability, productivity and quality of Raw Material In National Textile Policy 2000 government implemented Cotton Technology Mission To improve the performance of Cotton sector through proceeds in Research Development, quality and productivity of products. The Govt. of India is aimed to increase production of cotton plant wool by 50% with improved quality and productivityFirm level InitiativesCompanies should improve the productivity at firm level to develop economies of scaleUp-grading technology Form JVs with global players for technology up-gradation and scaleImplementing TQM ensure waste minimization, product durability and reliability.Lean manufacturing optimized distribution network and supply chain management to attain reduced cycle timeUse of IT servicesIn-house skill development programApparel Industry Landscapeworld(a) Textile and Apparel trade is recovering after a bury during the economic recession in 2008-09, and is expected to reach US$ 1 Trillion by 2020 from the current US$ 510 Bn. The growth in trade is driven by increased outsourcing of western / developed countries towards lower cost countries in Asia. Indias Textile Apparel industry ( internal + exports) is expected to grow from the current US$ 70 bn to US$ 220 bn by 2020. The Indian domestic Textile and Apparel market size in 2009 was US$ 47 bn and is expected to grow 11% CAGR to reach US$ 140 Bn by 2020 home(prenominal) Apparel retail market was worth US$33 Bn in 2009 and is expected to reach US$ 100 Bn by 2020.Export Sector Indias exports have also recovered in 2009-10 following increased global demand and is currently worth US$ 23.5 Bn. Indian apparel exports have also grown by a CAGR of 11.7% in last 4 years. The export market includes readymade garments of cotton, man made, silk, wool and other textile materials with cotton pr oducts accounting for the major function. India has the potential to increase its export luck in world trade from the current 4.5% to 8% and reach US$ 80 Bn by 2020. India has the potential of this strong growth in exports because of increased sourcing dismissal from developed countries to Asia. Indias also possess different strengths which makes it a suitable alternating(a) to China for global buyers. In terms of financial returns, Apparel is the some attractive product sept amongst retail product categories both in terms of Returns on Capital Employed and EBITDA. Garmenting Technical Textiles are the most attractive segments within the Apparel value chain in terms of ROA and EBITDA. According to KPMG research investments upto US$ 68 Bn will be demand by 2020 across the Textile supply chain to tap the potential market generated by the growth of textile industry. Investment required in garment sector by 2020 is to the tune of US$ 14 Bn and for affect is US$ 19 Bn.Apparel In dustry However Indian Apparel Industry is a small scale sector with high degree of fragmentation. Apparel manufacturing has about 77,000 small scale units classified as domestic manufacturers, manufacturer exporters and fabricators. Due to low entry barrier, garments industry is the least great(p) intensive part of textiles value chain, leading to high fragmentation. There are around 8200 registered apparel exporters in India. The turnover of 4800 exporters is less than 5 million INR which indicates the high level of fragmentation.Apparel Retailing A huge glob of apparel market is contributed by urban segment. Majority of this urban segment stays in few selected cities where organized retail is preferred mode of shopping thus organized retail plays a very important role in domestic apparel consumption. Total apparel and appearance accessories retail market was worth Rs.80,000 crore in 2004, which grew by 11% each year till 2006. Although organized retails chains and exclusive in stigator outlets are gaining momentum, traditional retailers and MBOs still dominate apparel sell. One of the key factors for the huge growth is due to expansion by apparel brands and retailers to small but potential cities. Many global brands like Marks Spencer are acquiring established in India by franchisee route. Malls are expected to be one of the main drivers for growth of apparel retailing, as they provide large areas.Mens Apparel Man apparel stands at $ 8.1bn in 2007 with a market section of 42% of total apparel market. It is expected to see high growth in near future but % share will change magnitude due to growth in other segments.In 2007 men apparel industry was mainly dominated by shirts accounting for 36.5% of total men segement. The established key players are Arvind mills, Madura Garment, Westside, shoppers stop and Pantaoon. Levis Strauss is the major newcomer in the equal segment.Women Apparel women apparel stands at $ 6.7bn in 2007 with a market share of 34% o f total apparel market. It is expected to grow till 11bn by 2009. Some of the important changiing trends observed in this segment are loosening of casual usurp in the office is increasing the ready to wear marketWorking women demand western or indo-western outfits that last in fashion and qualitySaree have the higest share but pant and skirts are growing rapidly due to changing social trendsFrom 2002 to 2007 saree demand has shown a CAGR of 12.8% whereas Trouser and skirts have shown CAGR of 34%1.pngKid Apparel Kid apparel is the smallest segment of $ 4.7 bn. Licensing interntional kids apparel is a successful scheme to capture the premium market. Some popular brands in same category are Disney, Barbie etc. This segment have very little brand penetration of 5-8% but it is expected to grow at 15-20%A comparitive abstract of all segments with their expected growth is shown underKey growth drivers for the textile and apparel Industry are Growth in organized retailing at 41% CAGR.I ncreasing number of working women.Increasing theater incomeChanging demographicsAffinity for brands and better shopping experienceProfile of French brandsHigh end/ Luxury scratchsProducts coverageGender targetedTarget nodeMarketing strategyProduct dodgingHerms attire accessories anthropoid/ pistillateHigh-end/ rich state of all agesExclusivity is the key word.Products are very Expensive and often perceived as durable goods (can be passed from niggle to daughter)Overbuying is discoraged clients do not have the right to by more than a X number of items per collectionVery high-quality, often hand-made by specialized artisans eg. leather goods often produced by experts in Italy.Each maison has its Flagship products, that remain unchanged, or are slightly updated across collections.Pret-a-porter collections are innovative and trend-setter for the rest of the clothing industryLVMH Louis Vuitton costume accessories manful/ effeminateHigh-end/ rich creation of all agesChannel dres s accessories womanlyHigh-end/ rich population of all agesLVMH Dior wearable accessories anthropoid/ distaffHigh-end/ rich population of all agesChlo clothe accessories young-bearing(prenominal)High-end/ rich population of all agesYves Saint Laurent fit out accessoriesMale/FemaleHigh-end/ rich population of all agesLanvinClothing accessoriesMale/FemaleHigh-end/ rich population of all agesLVMH GivenchyClothing accessoriesFemaleHigh-end/ rich population of all agesMaison Martin MargielaClothing accessoriesMale/FemaleHigh-end/ rich population of all agesPremium/ mid(prenominal)dleProduct coverageGender TargetedTarget guestMarketing StrategyProducts StrategyIsabel MarantClothing accessoriesFemaleMid 30s/ primal 40sTargets are high-end of medium class, that cannot afford luxe but wants to buy the scoop product they can afford.Price sensibility is not to be neglected.Brand strengh based on notoriety, string communication campaigns and sales to clean stocks. late trend is the affiliated-brand strategy, such as Ath and Etoile, by respectivelly V.Bruno and I.Marant, that target at different age ranges as a way to maximise sales choke and visualise are the key words.Quality is important, but not overvalued as for luxe products.Some brands will have a few flagship products, but as general rule the collections are completely renovated each hardenVanessa BrunoClothing accessoriesFemaleMid 30s/ archaeozoic 40sCarvenClothing accessoriesMale / FemaleMid 30s/ aboriginal 40sDe FursacClothing accessoriesMale new-fashioned 30s/ later(a) 40sJacadiClothing accessoriesChildren0 to 8y +/-BonpointClothing accessoriesChildren0 to 8y +/-Gerard DarelClothing accessoriesFemaleMid 30s/ early(a) 40sAgnsClothing accessoriesFemaleMid 30s/ Early 40sClaudine PierrotClothing accessoriesFemaleMid 30s/ Early 40sManoushClothing accessoriesFemale easy 20s/ Early 30sMajeClothing accessoriesFemaleLate 20s/ Early 30sZadig VoltaireClothing accessoriesChildren/ Male / Fema leLate 20s/ Early 30sBa ShClothing accessoriesFemaleLate 20s/ Early 30sSandroClothing accessoriesFemaleLate 20s/ Early 30sLes PetitesClothing accessoriesChildren/ FemaleLate 20s/ Early 30sComptoir des CotoniersClothing accessoriesChildren/ FemaleLate 20s/ Early 30sAth Vanessa BrunoClothing accessoriesFemaleLate 20s/ Early 30sEtoile Isabel MarantClothing accessoriesFemaleLate 20s/ Early 30sKooplesClothing accessoriesMale / FemaleWhole 20sBereniceClothing accessoriesMale / FemaleLate 20s/ Early 30sBel AirClothing accessoriesFemaleWhole 20s halfway/Low rangeProduct CoverageGender TargetedTarget CustomerMarketing StrategyProducts StrategyZara (Spanish)Clothing accessoriesFemaleMid 30s/ Early 40sDisposable Fashion.Easy-to-wear collection hits, constantly renovated (short collections)Design Disposable fashion.Quality is not perceived as key product attribute.Products are often produced outside EuropeMango (Spanish)Clothing accessoriesFemaleMid 30s/ Early 40sH M (UK)Clothin g accessoriesFemaleMid 30s/ Early 40sNaf NafClothing accessoriesFemaleLate 20s/ Early 30sSud ExpressClothing accessoriesFemaleLate 20s/ Early 30sPROMODClothing accessoriesFemaleLate 20s/ Early 30sEtamClothing accessoriesFemaleVariousMiddle/Low rangeProduct CoverageGender TargetedTarget CustomerMarketing StrategyProducts StrategyUniqlo (Japan)Clothing accessoriesMale/ effeminateFamilies looking for basic items with average quality and good priceLong-lasting collections, not really fashion-driven (does not follow trends).Good value for moneyLe Petit BateauClothing accessoriesChildren/ FemaleFrench brand in IndiaBased on the consumption profile we can see that women segment is the fastest growing segment and also the share of formal wear like trousers and skirts is increasing due to increasing number of working women in the society. Thus a French brand targeting female consumers in the age range of Late 20s/Early 30s will be best suited for India. Though the disposable income i s increasing, the target group of women is highly value conscious hence Premium/Middle or Middle/Low class brand will perform better than the extravagance brands. Also the segment purchasing luxury brands is although growing but currently too small to target.Important Parameters to consider while entering India spatial relation The most important part is the positioning in the Indian consumer mind-space. reinvigorated casual positions are taken in by the brand such as ColorPlus, Dockers and Canary Blue. Design wear are gone with square-1 mall and Kimaya, Kazo and individual designer having their stand alone store. Any positioning below that is lapped up by Zillions of manufacturers. However there are still wide open gaps which lie agape between these broad categories which can be easily targeted. Also Indian consumers show an affinity for foreign brands as it is considered a proxy for status. Therefore even the Indian Manufactures like ITC, Madura garment give exotic names to thei r brands for eg John Players, Allen Solly.Location The location is the key to the positioning, it determines and in turns reinforces positioning in fact, with about 50% of the operational expenses are taken up by the rentals, it has assumed an even more important position. Exclusive showrooms at a high end street or space in well reputed mall are the two options for establishing a high end brand.Buying vs. Manufacturing It is very important decision for the fore

Kinetics Of Nucleophilic Substitutions

Kinetics Of Nucleophilic SubstitutionsThe study of dynamics involves the observation of the chemical response range and the factors that promote or diminish down those treasures. In addition to providing companionship about the process replys reactant to product translation, but it is alike sustainful in increasing efficiency in the manufacturing world as kinetics provides breeding about how long a response will take and if it take places at all. Hence, it is crucial steady from a financial aspect that kinetics is studied.1This examine exhibits the kinetics of a nucleophilic substitution reception. The purpose of this experiment is to investigate the kinetics of the hydrolysis of t-butyl chloride which solvolyzes by an SN1 mechanism beca hold t-butyl chloride is a tertiary halide ( alkyl radical halide). SN1 mechanism means a first drift chemical reaction with substitution by a nucleophilic result. The boilersuit reaction is as follows t-butyl chloride + H2O - (CH3)3C OH + HCl. The mechanism involves a first ordinate-determine slow step which ionizes t-butyl chloride and produces a chloride anion and carbocation. This is stray determining step because the rate of reaction depends on the alkyl halide and non on the nucleophilic solvent. The ionisation is as follows t-butyl chloride - (CH3)3C+ + Cl-. Thus, the rate of reaction (rate of disappearance of preoccupancy of t-butyl chloride) corresponds to the concentration of t-butyl chloride. The back up step involves the nucleophile and is luxuriant and as follows (CH3)3C+ + Cl- + H2O - (CH3)3COH + HCl. These reactions, at specific known temperature, will help the experimenter obtain the consume beat it takes for the reaction to occur which in change form will help calculate the rate continuous, k. Using the Arrhenius equation, the rate incessant k will help calculate the activation susceptibility.2This experiment demonstrates the correlational statistics between var. in concentration (b oth t-butyl and hydroxide), temperature, solvent preindication, and substrate complex body part with the rate of reaction of the hydrolysis of t-butyl chloride as well as exhibits the kinetic order of the reaction. The reactions are taken to increasing levels of completion (10%, 20%, and 30% completion) to concur sure that the rate constant K is steady at the same(p) temperature and reactant concentration. The activation energy the reaction requires in order to proceed is alike examined in this experiment.ExperimentalFor experiment run 2 of III. adopt of resultant Polarity, in order to make a 6040 (WaterAcetone) sample, 4mL of t-butyl chloride was interracial with 0.4 mL of 0.1 M NaOH and 5.6mL H2O. The reason was because 5.6 mL of irrigate + 0.4 mL of NaOH= 6 mL and 6 mL/ 10mL total volume of declaration = 60% water 4 mL of t-Butyl chloride = 4 mL and 4 mL/ 10 mL total volume of tooth root= 40% dimethyl ketone.The experimental procedure carried out for this science lab followed the steps listed in the lab manual. attend to Organic Chemistry Lab Manual Fall 2010 Winter 2011 pages 21-22.Results abide by All the declarations turned a bit lime-green before turning sensationalistic. The measure measured for reaction to occur corresponds to the m it took the solution to turn yellow in colour. analyse of answer OrderVariation of Hydroxide duckingRUN% CompletionTime (seconds)k (s-1)110492.15 x 10-3220942.37 x 10-33301512.36 x 10-3Note Refer to Appendix for calculation of rate constant kVariation of t-Butyl Chloride ConcentrationRUNt-Butyl Chloride in stock solutiont-Butyl Chloride in reaction solutionTime (s)K (s-1)Rate of Reaction(M/s)Reaction order of t-butyl chloride10.2 M0.06 M271.90x 10-31.11 x 10-41storderPART A, RUN 10.1 M0.03 M492.15x 10 -36.12 x 10-51storder20.1 M0.015 M641.65x 10-32.34 x 10-51storderNote Refer to appendix for calculation of t-butyl chloride in reaction solution, rate constant k, rate of reaction, and reaction order of t -butyl chloride.Study of Temperature Variation (Room Temperature 19.5C)RUNTemperatureTime (seconds)1aRoom temp. 10o =(9.5oC)1211bRoom temp. 10o =(9.5oC)123Part A, enumeration 1Room temp. = (19.5oC)492aRoom temp. + 10o= (29.5oC)202bRoom temp. + 10o=(29.5oC)20Study of Solvent PolarityRUNWater Acetone epoch (seconds)180 2022Part A, Run 170 3049260 40134Study of Structural Variations in the SubstrateRUNSubstrateTime (seconds)1Isopropyl ChlorideNo reaction (Waited for 7 minutes and nothing happened. The reaction categorization was even heated on a steam bath)Calculating activating Energy (Ea)Note The data of the Runs are from the Study of Temperature Variations.Runk (s-1)Average k (s-1)- lumber kT (C)1/T (C-1)1a8.71 x 10-48.64 x 10-43.069.50.10531b8.57 x 10-4Part A, Run 12.15 x 10-32.15 x 10-32.6719.50.05132a5.27 x 10-35.27 x 10-32.2829.50.03392b5.27 x 10-3Note - put down k column was plan on the y-axis and 1/T was plotted on the x-axis of Figure 1Figure 1 This figure represents th e graph of 1/Temperature against - log K, which is used to match the activation energy of the reaction. A line of best fit is lay downn to show the equation of the line, which is y=10.049x + 2.0321. The fallacy of the graph is represented by R2. The peddle of 10.049 is equal to Ea/2.3R. Hence, the activation energy (Ea) of the reaction is equal to 45.76cal/mole with an error of 4.19cal/mole.Reaction MechanismDiscussionThe first part of the experiment placid of study of reaction order. During part A of this experiment, when the hydroxide concentration was wide-ranging (which corresponded to a different tally of completion of reaction), it was observed that the k set were all very close (around 2.3610-3 s-1). Since the rate constant, k, is an integral part of the rate of reaction, the similar k values indicate that the NaOH concentration in the solution has no effect on the rate of reaction. This is because the nucelophile is not involved in the first step (rate determining) a nd tho reacts to the substrate which occurs during the second (fast) step.3 This shows that the reaction is naught order when looking at the concentration of the nucleophile. It makes sense since the rate determining steps are the slow steps and in this reaction, the first ionization step is the slow step, thus making it the rate determining one. Meanwhile, the second step is fast and so it is not the rate determining one. Hence, since the nucleophile is only when present in the second step (NaOH is neutraulized by the HCl formed in the fast second step)2, it is not linked to the rate of the reaction (NaOH concentration does not relate to the rate of reaction).During part B of this experiment, t-butyl chloride concentration was varied. It was seen that the reaction time kept drastically morose when as the concentration of the t-butyl chloride in the reaction solution change magnitude. Refering to T adapted-bodied 1, the fastest reaction (in lowest quantity of time of 27 secon ds) occurred when the concentration of t-butyl chloride was relatively highest (0.06 M), followed by a laggard reaction (49 seconds) when concentration of butyl in reaction solution was lower (0.03 M), and ultimately followed by the slowest reaction (64 seconds) when the concentration was the lowest (0.015 M). Hence, this clearly proves that the substrate had a major effect on the rate of the SN1 reaction. Referring to Table I (b), it was calculated that the rate order of t-butyl chloride was the one. This in turn also proves that the general reaction is first order as the rate of the reaction is only affected by concentration of one molecule, that being the substrate, which in this gaucherie was t-butyl chloride.Experiment two showed the effect of temperature variation on the reaction. The room temperature of the lab was at 19.5C. At the lowest experimented temperature, 9.5C, the k value of the reaction was 8.64 x 10-4 s-1 (referring to Table V). When the experiment was perform ed at the room temperature of 19.5C, the k value augment to 2.15 x 10-3 s-1. While at the highest experimenting temperature, 29.5C, the k value of the reaction was seen to be the highest at 5.27 x 10-3 s-1. From this it sens be concluded that as the temperature increased, the k value of the reaction increased as well. Referring to Table 2, it can also be noted that, as the temperature increased, the time of reaction decreased significantly. These do are due to the fact that increase in temperature causes greater amount of reactant molecules to gain enough kinetic energy to overcome the activation energy required of the reaction (enough energy to go through the first rate-determining step).4 As a result, an increase in temperature corresponds to an increase in the number of roaring collisions among the reactant molecules. Thus, the reaction would occur faster and so the time for the reaction to occur would decrease. Referring to Figure 1 (Arrhenius plot), the activation energy of the reaction was calculated to be 45.76cal/mole with an error of 4.19cal/mole.The third experiment showed the effect of solvent frigidity on the reaction. It was observed that, as the ratio of water to acetone decreased, the time of the reaction increased, and so, the rate of the reaction decreased. This is probably due to the fact that water have high polarity than acetone as water acetone has a longer hydrocarbon chain than water. Since the reactant in this experiment, t-butyl chloride, is a slightly polar molecule, its polar nature during the transition state of the reaction increases tremendously. As a result, water (with comparatively much higher polarity), will allow increased salvation of the carbocation and centiliter anion that formed during the first rate-determining ionization step, by lowering the energy of the transition state. This is because water, a protic solvent, forms hydrogen bonds with both of the aforementioned ions in order to increase the solvolysis. Whi le acetone is an aprotic solvent and not able to form the hydrogen bonds. Hence, higher ratio of water to acetone of a solvent is expected to result to a higher rate of hydrolysis reaction due to a better ability to solvate charged intermediate, which is just what was observed in experiment.5The last experiment showed the effects of structural variation in the substrate on the reaction. In this experiment, t-butyl chloride was replaced with isopropyl chloride. As a result, no reaction took place after 5 minutes of waiting and even after heating it for 7 minutes. This is due to the fact that isopropyl chloride is a utility(prenominal) halide while t-butyl is a tertiary halide. The t-butyl chloride was able to react because it was able to build a stable carbocation as it had a tertiary carbon which allows hyper wedlock and generalisation to occur. While on the other hand, isopropyl results into a far slight stable carbocation as it does not allow for enough hyper conjugation and induction as it does not have any C-C sigma bonds that t-butyl chloride has. The t-butyl chloride would form more substituted carbocations than isopropyl. As a result, it is favourable to form a carbocation with t-butyl chloride than with isopropyl chloride as tertiary halides undergo SN1 reactions more efficiently.The results of the experiment seem to agree with the expected results. Though, thither can always be sources for errors while performing all of the experiments. First of all, to cause the different type of mixtures, amounts of contents had to be made through the use of instruments such pipette and graduated cylinder. Since these instruments required the experimenter to estimate each measurement with the naked eye and so this could have lead to improper solution mixtures. Another error that possibly occurred could have been with the use of a snatch watch. It was not possible to start the stop watch at the exact heartbeat that the two solutions were mixed and stop at t he exact instant the solution reached equilibrium. That could have lead to error in measuring time of reaction. Furthermore, the neutralization of NaOH was measured by timing the reaction until it turned into a yellow colour. Though, since the reaction solution progressively turned from a gloomful colour to a yellow colour, it was not possible to exactly estimate the end of neutralization. to a fault, during the study of temperature variation, it was not possible to keep the temperature to be incisively at the same temperature for the entirety of one run of experiment as the temperature showed slight variations every minute. Lastly, due to limited amount of Erlenmeyer flasks available for the experiment, flasks had to be reused. Even though all the flasks were thoroughly washed with wash solvent and rinsed. Hence, this could have possibly caused contaminations which lead to errors in results. Overall, due to various reasons, there could have been errors in timing which would lead to improper calculation of rate constants and activation energy of the reaction.QuestionsI)Let ln (x) = yx = eylog (x) = y*log(e)log (x) = ln(x)*log(e)ln (x) = log(x)/log(e)ln (x) = 2.303 log (x) since log(e) = 0.4343II) ln RCl0/RCl = ktLet x = RCl0/RClln (x) = ktln (x) = 2.303 log (x)kt = 2.303 log (x)kt = 2.303 log ( RCl0/RCl )kt = 2.303 log ( 1/ RCl ) let RCl0 = 1 (because initial concentration is 100%)kt = 2.303 log ( 1/ 1 difference in RCl )because RCl0 RCl = difference in RCl1 RCl = difference in RCl1 difference in RCl = RClkt = 2.303 log ( 1/ 1 %reaction/100 )because %reaction/100 equals the difference in RClAn apolar solvent would hinder SN2 reaction as it would not be able to solvate the reactant due to the fact that it would repel the anionic nucleophile. And since nucleophilic reactions require the solvation of reactants, SN2 reaction would not take place.Polar protic solvents are usually acceptable for SN2 reaction as they are convenient solvents for nucleophilic s ubstitutions because the reagents are soluble. The high polarity would turn the solute. Small anions are solvated more than large anions. Though, these solvents would result into slower reaction due to hydrogen bonding which causes loss of nucleophilicity.Polar aprotic solvents prefer SN2 reactions as SN2 reactions prefer the basic nucleophilic. The aprotic solvents enhance the nucleophilicity of anions and have strong dipole moments. Also since these solvents do not have OH or NH groups, no hydrogen bonds mustiness be broken to make room for nucleophile to attract to electrophilic carbon atom. This is the nearly preferred solvent for SN2 reactions.6Alkyl iodide contains iodine atom, while alkyl chloride contains centilitre atom. Iodine has lower electro-negativity (2.5) than that of chlorine (3.0). Hence, alkyl iodide would be a less(prenominal) polar compound. Since water is a highly polar solvent, it will not be able to solvate alkyl iodide as much as alkyl chloride due to hi gher attraction to the more electro-negative atom of chlorine than that of iodine. As a result, it will not be able to increase the salvation of the transition state as much as that of alkyl chloride which has higher polarity.2 Hence, the activation energy of the alkyl iodide would not be lower as much as that of alkyl chloride and so its Ea would be higher than 31 kJ/mol.Structure of bromophenol blue indicator at alkaline pH.7

rates of chemical reactions- lo3 questions

pass judgment of chemical answers- lo3 questionsRates of Chemical Reactions- LO3 Questions1.1 Two Grand-Pa tablets would have the same heart and soul as one Grand-Pa powder this is be causality Grand-Pa Headache Tablets each contain, Aspirin 226,8mg, Paracetamol 162,0mg and caffeine 32,4mg where as Grand-Pa Headache Powders each contain Aspirin 453,6mg, Paracetamol 324,0 mg and caffein 64,8 mg thence to obtain the same dosage of ingredients, twice the dosage, then one would have to arrogate two tablets to equal one powder.1.2 drink them with warm irrigate give allow for a faster reaction rate thus allowing the import of the throe killer to work faster. Also, if the powder is dissolved into a small amount of weewee then the upshot bequeath be more concentrated and testament therefore be able to get to work in a more powerful manner quicker, which will allow for the powder to work quicker in relief of pain.1.3 The granules in the powder have a large combine surface plain than that of a tablet, which solvents in a reaction with the water to be done quicker with the powder for, resultant of the larger heart-to-heart surface argona of the granules, more reactions occur/ are allowed to occur at a quicker rate surrounded by the reacting particles. The tablet, being comprised of compounded granules together, the collisions between the reacting particles is limited for the surface area of one whole tablet is less(prenominal) than the combined surface area of granules. Therefore less reactions are allowed/do occur, therefore the powders provide faster relief than the tablets for they react faster with the water and thus will work faster in supplying pain relief.1.4Total 453.6mg+324.0mg+64.8mg=842.4mgAspirin (453.6mg/842.4mg) * nose candy/1=53.85% Paracetemol (324.0mg/842.4mg)*100/1=38.46% Caffeine (64.8mg/842.4mg)*100/1=7.69%1.5Symptoms of OverdoseAspirin These allow dizziness, tinnitus, sweating, nausea, vomiting, mental confusion, hyperventi lation, respiratory alkalosis, metabolic acidosis, ketosis and depression of the central nervous system. In children serious signs of overdosage whitethorn develop rapidly. May include burning pain in the throat/stomach, confusion, mental/mood changes, fainting, weakness, ringing in the ears, fever, rapid breathing, change in the amount of urine, seizures and loss of consciousness. Paracetamol Liver damage which may be mortal may only appear after a few days. Symptoms of overdosage include nausea and vomiting. Acute intoxication causes kidney failure. Pallor, nausea, vomiting, anorexia and abdominal pain. Liver damage may be engender apparent 12 to 48 hours after ingestion. Abnormalities of glucose metabolism and metabolic acidosis may occur. In severe poisoning hepatic failure may progress to encephalopathy, haemorrhage, cerebral endema (brain swelling), and death. Cardiac arrhythmias and pancreatitis have been reported.Caffeine Large doses may cause restlessness, excitement, muscle tremor, tinnitus, scintillating scotoma, tachycardia, extrasystoles, restlessness, nervousness, excitement, insomnia, flushed face, dieresis (frequent urination), gastrointestinal disturbance, muscle twitches, rambling flow of thought and speech, tachycardia or cardiac arythmia (fluctuating heart patterns), periods of inexhaustibility (continuous awareness) and psychomotor agitation ( trouble sitting still and being calm).1.6 I would interpret them not to, because they are already coffee addicts they are probably victorious in a lot of caffeine already thus to take the Grand-Pa powders would increase their risk of an overdose. It in like manner has the ability to enhance the effects of paracetamol and acetylsalicylic acid so not only will the caffeine have an effect on the persons body in an overdose situation, just now the former(a) table of contents of the Grand-Pa powders, namely the aspirin and the paracetamol will also have an effect on the body, and the combinati on of all three of them in an overdose situation will result in certain kidney failure and death resultantly.2.1 The surface area of wood dredge is great, because it is composed of grains which are real small this would cause for a large, sudden explosive effect should the tail discharge stick to into contact with the wood flour. The preoccupancy of the reactants (the wood flour) is great having the granules that are very small and in piles together. Should the ignition/flame from the cigarette come into contact with the piles of the wood flour an explosive effect, resultant of the submerging of the wood flour. The application of the heat to the piles of wood flour will result in the reaction, for the increase in heat will result in a reaction and will work in supplying the sudden reaction of the wood flour parts. The smoking of a cigarette is also banned because cigarette ash can serve as a throttle valve and when coming into contact and mixing with wood flour it can become a highly volatile blend. The owners of these mills do not wish to lose their supply and suffer damages to their facilities thus they prohibit people from smoking or bringing fire or ignited material into the mill.A dispel explosion is the explosive flame of a remains suspended in air in an enfold location, which results in harmful effects of overpressure, thermal radiation, and ensuing projectiles. Many materials which are car parkly known to combust can generate a splash explosion, such as coal, sayingdust, and magnesium. However, legion(predicate) otherwise mundane materials can also lead to a dangerous dust cloud such as grain, flour, sugar, powdered milk and pollen. Mining of coal leads to coal dust and flour mills likewise have large amounts of flour dust as a result of milling. A similar problem occurs in saw mills and other places dedicated to carpentry. The dust must also comprise of very small particles, where the surface area is very large, and so will support co mbustion. Dust is defined as powders with particles less than about five hundred micrometres in diameter, but finer dust will present a much greater hazard than coarse particles by virtue of the larger surface area.There are five necessity conditions for a dust explosionA combustible dust (Flour or Wood Flour)The dust is suspended in the air at a proper concentration (Possible)There is an oxidant (typically atmospheric oxygen) (Possible)The dust is confined (Yes)There is an ignition source. (Provided by cigarette)Thus there is a high risk of a dust explosion already and the cigarette would just complete the necessary conditions by providing an ignition source.2.2.1 using up of Oxidant Concentration Reduction make use of of Deflagration venting through a dust retention and flame-arresting device2.2.2 Use of Deflagration venting Use of Deflagration pressure containment Use of Deflagration suppressionUse of masks to image the reduction of the inhalation of the wood flour.2.31. As an absorbentAbsorbent qualities are utilized in cleansers to remove unwanted water, oils, or greases from such articles as delicate machinery parts, jewellery, and furs, or to carry cleansing, poisonous, or other chemical agents to an object. In the manufacture of dynamite, the extreme sensitivity of the explosive agent can be reduced to safe levels by solidifying the liquid nitro-glycerine by absorbing it in a solid medium such a3 wood flour.2. As decorative materialWood flour is employ decoratively in the production of oatmeal and velvet wall root words, where decoration by design and food grain is provided by wood flour, coloured as desired, onto a prepared paper surf ace.3.1Iron (a porous iron gas pedal prepared by step-down magnetite, Fe3O4) Osmium is a much better catalyst for the reaction but is very expensive.3.2 A catalyst such as an iron catalyst is used to speed up the reaction by let downing the energizing energy so that the N2 bonds and H2 bonds can be more readi ly broken. The catalyst has no affect whatsoever on the position of the equipoise. Adding a catalyst doesnt produce any greater percentage of ammonia in the equilibrium mixture. Its only function is to speed up the reaction. In the absence of a catalyst the reaction is so slow that virtually no reaction happens in any sensible time. The catalyst ensures that the reaction is fast complete for a dynamic equilibrium to be set up inwardly the very short time that the gases are actually in the reactor. Catalysts lower the activation energy in a reaction by holding particles onto their surface and pointing them into the right direction for a product to soma, which in this subject field is Ammonia. This catalyst, Iron (Fe3O4) , is used for it is ideal for allowing the nitrogen (N2 (g) ) and hydrogen (3H2 (g) )reactants to react and form the products which entails Ammonia (2NH3 (l) ) rapidly.3.3Ammonia NH3 (l)3.4 Fertilizer Approximately 83% (as of 2003) of ammonia is used as fertiliz ers either as its salts or as solutions. Consuming more than 1% of all man-made power, the production of ammonia is a significant factor of the world energy budget.Cleaner Household ammonia is a world-wide purpose cleaner that can be used on many surfaces. Because ammonia results in a relatively streak-free shine, one of its most common uses is to clean glass, porcelain and stainless steel. It is also frequently used for cleaning ovens and sopping items to loosen baked-on or caked-on grime.As a fuel Ammonia was used during World War II to power buses in Belgium, and in railway locomotive and solar energy applications prior to 1900. Liquid ammonia was used as the fuel of the rocket airplane, the X-15. Although not as powerful as other fuels, it left no soot in the reusable rocket locomotive and its density approximately matches that for the oxidizer, liquid oxygen, which simplified the aircrafts design.

False Positives In Presumptive Blood Testing Biology Essay

bastard Positives In Presumptive personal c red-facednessit line Testing Biology Essay countercurrent is a fluid mediocre that is shew within the motorcardiovascular constitution-which comprises of the oculus and root vessels (Jackson and Jackson 2008). It consists of 55% inventory plasma and 45% cellular real (Jackson and Jackson 2008). agate line plasma consists of dissolved materials such as antibodies, horm sensations, waste products and nutrients, whereas the cellular material consists of erythrocytes (red countercurrent cells), leucocytes (white countercurrent cells) and thrombocytes (platelets) (Jackson and Jackson 2008). crease is transited through the body by the pumping dissembleion of the heart. It has numerous functions including (Jackson and Jackson 2008)Acting as an internal ictus constitution-including the removal of waste products for excretion and moving nutrients for metabolism.Maintaining body temperature.Defending a progressst infection.protect t he body from effects of injury. squanderer is one of primary(prenominal) sources of DNA found at criminal offense convulsions, and is cruci completelyy authorised in establishing a crosstie mingled with a suspect and a victim of a crime (Jackson and Jackson, 2008). To detect the presence of line of products at a crime film, a likely mental test is used. These stinkpot, however, only detect whether a nerve centre is melody and outflow the axe non distinguish amongst human and animal split-a serological test is postulate to do this.The Erythrocytes (red contrast cells) ar the most common type of credit line cell and shoot hemeoglobin (Jackson and Jackson 2008). They suss out hemoglobin- a protein containing iron. hemoglobin is responsible for the carriage of oxygen, and it is this property that likely product line tests be establish on. Most of the likely tests rely on the ability of haemoglobin to change state the oxidation of a reagent, normally hydrogen peroxide (H2O2 (aq)) (Jackson and Jackson 2008). The force of oxidation normally recrudesces a blazon change in the presumptive test.Tiny amounts of line of work pre move as a dig burn down be detecting using a warp change test. some(prenominal) grizzly and alter grounds look similar in appearance to rootage which can lead to a scenes of crime police policeman conducting a presumptive test. Other substances that could obtain contaminated suspected product line or opposite substances on their receive at a scene could lead to a presumptive billet test incorrectly showing a imperious closure for furrow. This is k right offn as a moody confirming.Once a stain has been viewd as descent, accordingly twain processes must be completed. The first is to interpret any bank linestain patterns, so that a reconstruction of events can be established (Langford et al 2005). Secondly, line of floratains must thus be cured for further analysis (Langford et al 2005). Reco genuinely of linestains varies according to whether the stain is stringent or prohibitionist. Once recoered, the kind can then be sent to a rhetorical Science Service laboratory, where it entrust be ab initio tried and true to ascertain whether it is human or animal blood. To do this a serological test will be conducted, which involves identifying the presence of proteins specific to homo and analysing for DNA sequences specific to humans (Jackson and Jackson 2008). The blood will then be used for DNA profiling, which will fancyfully establish whether the blood belongs to the suspect or the victim.I.II Aims and ObjectivesThe aim of my give is to create a authoritative list of counterfeit positives for four contrasting presumptive blood tests. in spite of appearance this aim I moderate six objective lensives to completeTo compare the false positives of four diametrical presumptive tests.To test substances that are cognize false positives- as inform by other authors.To test inglorious substances assort to those already know.To present the time taken for a substance to fight back with a presumptive test.To photograph the answers of from each substance.To create a determinate list of false positives for each presumptive test.I am waiver to compare four different presumptive tests, as some tests are more than practical to use in some situations than others. Consequently, analysing more than one test will allow a wider ramble of end dits.I shall similarly be testing known false positives as reported by other authors, as it is important to show how the presumptive tests react. Unknown substances confederate to those that are known will then be well-tried to condition whether similar substances react alike. This will then allow me to establish whether an unbeknown(predicate) substance has reacted or not, as I can compare the reply times and colour changes from two the known and unknown substances.It is important to record t he time taken for a substance to react with a presumptive test, as blood should show a dissolvent straight away(predicate). An unobvious result that takes time to develop could indicate that the substance macrocosm tested is a false positive. Photographing results will allow me to document the differences in the colour change in each chemical reaction with each substance.I feeling that it is important to create a definitive list of false positives as it can reduce the risk of using valuable resources at a crime scene. For example, if a scenes of crime officer is informed that a realizable blood stain has been contaminated with horseradish root (a known false positive), then they can use a presumptive test for blood that is not known to give rise a false positive with horseradish. If the result is positive for blood, then serological tests for blood can be carried out.Overall, I hope that this project will aid the work of a scenes of crime officer to choose the correct presumpt ive test to use in different situations-minimising time spent and resources used.Chapter II. Literature ReviewII.I Background InformationThe scientific analysis of blood was initially mentioned in 13th century Chinese texts, but it was Karl Landsteiner who observe the modern science of blood typing, which categorises different types of blood into the ABO blood typing system (White 2010). In 1901 it was reported that blood could be determined in two week gray-haired blood serum stains on linen, and by 1902 the four blood types A, B, O and AB had been discovered (White 2010). This system is ground on types of antigen on the red blood cells membrane. An antigen is a protein molecule capable of binding on to an antibody (Erzinlioglu 2004). The ABO system uses two antigens which are known as A and B and the four blood assemblys are determined according to this system (Erzinlioglu 2004). People that arrest the blood group A have the A antigen, those that are group B have the B anti gen those in the AB category have both antigens and those who belong to the O group have incomplete antigen (Erzinlioglu 2004). A persons blood contains the opposite group of corresponding antibodies, so people with blood group A have b antibodies, people with blood group B have a antibodies, those with blood group AB have neither a or b antibodies and those with blood group O have both a and b antibodies (Erzinlioglu 2004). If the wrong antibodies are introduced into the wrong blood group then destruction can be a result due to the red cells clumping together.The first suspect to have been convicted largely on the basis of DNA analysis of blood try outs was found guilty at Leicester Crown Court on 22nd January 1988 (White 2010). This case marks an important milestone, and DNA technology has ferment commonplace in forensic laboratories and is now instrumental in establishing both guilt and innocence in act cases (White 2010).II.II Physical Properties of BloodBlood constitutes a bout 7.7% of the body weight of a person (White 2010). This equates to 5-6 litres in males and 4-5 litres in females (Tortora and Anagnostakos 1987). Viscosity is resistance to flow, which in fluids is compared to piddle which has a viscosity of 1. ( bevel square and Gardner 2002). Blood viscosity usually purges between 4.4 and 4.7 (Tortora and Anagnostakos 1987). Blood also has a high gearer specific gravity (density) than water, which is the weight of a substance relative to the weight of an equal volume of water ( pile and Nordby 2005).Blood is a fluid that circulates throughout the body by way of the heart, arteries, veins and capillaries-known as the circulatory system (throng and Nordby 2005). A primary function of blood is to transport oxygen, electrolytes, nourishment, hormones, vitamins and antibodies to wavers and to transport waste products from tissues to the excretory organs (James and Nordby 2005).Tortora and Anagnostakos (1987) (in pious platitude and Gardner 200 2) say that when 4-6 litres of blood is present in the circulatory system, it is distributed as followsFigure 1- Blood scattering in the Circulatory System (Tortora and Anagnostakos 1987)As a medium, blood is compose of 55% plasma and 45% cells (White 2010). A single declination or large volume of blood is held together by strong sticky molecular forces that produce a surface accent (James and Nordby 2005). Surface tension is defined as the force that pulls the surface molecules of a liquid toward its interior, diminish the surface subject field and causing the liquid to resist penetration (James and Nordby 2005).Bevel and Gardner (2002) state that plasma is the pale yellow fluid component of blood, which is garbled down by volume into 91% water, 8% protein, 1% constituent(a) acids and 1% salts. Fibrinogen is one of the proteins, and this plays an important role in the coagulation of blood (Bevel and Gardner 2002). Blood serum is blood plasma minus its protein contented (J ackson and Jackson 2008). The cellular component of blood consists of erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood cells) and thrombocytes (platelets) (Bevel and Gardner 2002). red-faced blood cells are heavier than plasma, which can be seen in bodies as lividity-which is where red cells settle to the lowest extremity of a body after death (Chmiel and Walitza 1980).http//people.eku.edu/ritchisong/301images/Red_White_Blood_cells.jpgFigure 2- A red blood cell, platelet and white blood cell (University of Eastern Kentucky 2010).There are roughly 4.8 to 5.4 million red blood cells per three-dimensional mm of blood (Tortora and Anagnostakos 1987). They are bioconcaved discs in shape. The main role of the red blood cells is to transport oxygen from the lungs via the arterial system and return carbon dioxide to the lungs for expiration via the venous system (James and Nordby 2005). Red blood cells contain haemoglobin which is a red pigment that gives blood its colour (Bevel and Gardner 2002). Haemoglobin is composed of globin, which is made up of four folded polypeptide chains, and four haem groups that join with iron (University of Eastern Kentucky 2010).http//www.ul.ie/childsp/CinA/Issue64/Images/TOC36_2.gifFigure 3- Haemoglobin, containing four haem groups (University of Limerick, 2010).As the oxygen content increases in the blood, the shimmery red pigment of the haemoglobin also increases (Bevel and Gardner 2002). A red blood cell does not contain a nucleus.Red blood cells are expressed as a percentage of the packed (red) cell volume (PCV), also known as the haematocrit (Wonder 2001). Nelson and Rodak (1983) state that the haematocrit in humans is variable between individuals.HaematocritPossible people with range of haematocrit15-29%Chronic alcoholics or drug abusers, steroid abusers, women after traumatic child birth or illegal abortion, malnourished homeless(prenominal), elderly.30-48%Normal range for nontraumatic venipuncture (blood drawn in a cli nic or hospital) tastes.49-75%Dehydrated individuals, people in shock, those living at high altitude, impending and active heart attack victims, crudeborn babies, people excruciation from hypothermia, and people after extreme exercise.Table 1- Table to show the range of haematocrit ratios (Wonder 2001).White blood cells act to fight infections, destroy old cellular material and to destroy other invading microbes (Bevel and Gardner 2002). White blood cells can be further subdivided into phagocytes which are responsible for the capture and using up and foreign substances, and lymphocytes- which are responsible for the production of antibodies (Jackson and Jackson 2008). They make up less than 1% of the cellular component of blood, which equates to 5000 to 9000 white blood cells per cubic millimetre (Tortora and Anagnostakos 1987). The nuclei of white blood cells are the source of DNA in the blood (James and Nordby 2005).The other part of the cellular component of blood is the pla telets. kindred red blood cells, platelets also lack a nucleus (Bevel and Gardner 2002). Bevel and Gardner (2002) say that there are generally about 250,000 to 400,000 platelets per cubic millimetre of blood. Platelets are major components of the clotting mechanism of blood, and this is their primary function (James and Nordby 2005). Platelets have irregular shapes and are normally quite small, however when they encounter a damaged blood vessel they increase their size and their shapes changes (Bevel and Gardner 2002). They also become sticky and adhere to surrounding fibres in the vessel wall, which results in the accrual of platelets called the platelet batten (Bevel and Gardner 2002).II.III Blood at a Crime filmBlood is normally found at a crime scene due to a person sustaining an injury either by chance or on purpose. When a breach in the circulatory system occurs- due to an injury- the body reacts in different ways to catch the handout of blood (Bevel and Gardner 2002). Initially the vascular spasm occurs, which is which the smooth vessels in the blood vessel wall contract to decrease the size of the vessel, which reduces the flow of blood through it (Bevel and Gardner 2002). Tortora and Anagnostakos (1987) say that this reduces blood loss for up to 30 transactions following injury, which gives time for the other blood loss mechanisms to engage. The platelet plug then follows which reduces, if not stops, the blood loss (Bevel and Gardner 2002). The final step is coagulation, or clotting. This is what is normally seen at crime scenes, where the clotted mass of fibrin fibres and blood cells is adjoin by blood serum (Bevel and Gardner 2002).There are three types of release that can occur from damage to blood vessels (BUPA 2009)Arterial Bleedingvenous BleedingCapillary Bleeding.Arterial bleeding usually is spurting bright red blood, due to the blood having come from the heart and lungs-so it is oxygen generative (Walter et al 2004). The pumping a ction of the heart adds rhythmic surges to move blood vessels away from the heart (Wonder 2001). It is the most serious type of bleeding, and the most difficult to entertain due to the blood in the arteries being under pressure from the heart (Walter et al 2004). Arterial breachs results in volume stains (Wonder 2001). Loss from the carotid arteria or the aorta can rapidly lead to death (Wonder 2001). Examples of arterial injuries, and how they whitethorn occur are listed in Table 2.ArteryLocation likely OccurrenceFacialMouth/lipsBeatingTemporalHead/templesGunshot, crushCarotidNeck, front throatStab wound, Gunshot, DecapitationSubclavian chthonian collar boneGunshot, CrushingAortaChestGunshot, Stab woundbrachialArm/elbowBone disseverRadialWrist zany wrists, Bone Break, Stab woundFemoralGroinGunshot, Stab woundTibialAnkleBone Break, CrushingDeltoidUpper spike muscleStab woundTable 2- Areas and actions that may involve arterial damage (Wonder 2001)External venous bleeding is no rmally as a result of wounding, as veins are closer to the fight than arteries (Walter et al 2004). It results in the steady flow of dark red (almost brown) blood, and is darker than arterial blood as it has released oxygen to the tissues in the body and is flowing back to the heart and lungs for more oxygen (Walter et al 2004).Capillary wounding is common in pincer wounds as capillaries are really small vessels that are under very little pressure with a low volume of blood (Walter et al 2004). Capillary bleeding results in the oozing of either bright or dark red blood, which will normally stop on its own (Walter et al 2004).As well as the three main types of bleeding, there is a further category which is traumatic bleeding. There are different types of wounds which can commence traumatic bleeding, and these can be categorised as followsAbrasion- also known as a graze, where an object brushes on the skin but does not break it.Hematoma- where blood vessels are damaged, causing b lood to collect under the skin.Laceration- where a blunt impact to soft tissue causes a deep wound.Incision- where a precise cut is made into the skin. puncture Wound- where an object penetrates the skin and deeper layers.Contusion- also known as a bruise, where a blunt trauma causes damage under the skin, but does not break it.Crushing injuries- where a great amount of force is applied over a period of time, causing initially internal bleeding.Ballistic trauma- where a projectile weapon has entered and exited the area of the body, causing a wound between the two.Scenes of Crime officers attend many types of crime scene where blood is present. These embarrassBurglary- When an wrongdoer breaks a glass window or door to gain entry to a premises, they risk cutting their hands/arms. This leads to blood being left on fragments of glass in the window and on the floor. round out/Wounding- Open wounds are normally the result of an attack on a victim. Blood can be left at an assault scene on the weapon that was used in the assault, on the ground, on the offender and on the victim. If the victim is bleeding heavily then blood will be left whenever the victim comes into contact with another surface.Manslaughter/Attempted take out/Murder- Blood left at these scenes is not only important for mop purposes, but the pattern in which the blood is left can determine the order of events at a major scene.Road Traffic Crash- Blood at this scene can be found in the victims car and, if involved, the offenders car. This is important as it can place people in their several(prenominal) cars- allowing investigators to work out the positions of people at the time of the incident.The collection, packaging and rescue of blood evidence at a crime scene should not take place until the scenes of crime officer has documented the bloodstain patterns (Lee, Palmbach and moth miller 2001). Whenever biologic fluids are encountered at a crime scene, protective clothing, gloves and masks shou ld be skeletal due to the biohazard nature of blood (Lee, Palmbach and Miller 2001).To recover dry blood, an area near the blood that is unstained should be swobbed using a barren mop, as a control sample (Derbyshire Constabulary 2008). Then, the stain should be swabbed using a sterile swab that has been moistened using sterile water (Derbyshire Constabulary 2008). The remains of the stain should then be dry swabbed using a sterile swab (Derbyshire Constabulary 2008). The swabs should be returned to their tubes like a shot and stored frozen as soon as possible (Derbyshire Constabulary 2008). A batch control of both the water and swabs should always be made, and should be exhibited separately to the swabbed stain and background control (Derbyshire Constabulary 2008). Items that have areas of dried blood on them should be packaged in stem bags which are sealed securely and clearly marked as biohazard. Blood and bloody evidence should never be packaged in airtight containers (Lee , Palmbach and Miller 2001).To recover wet blood, a control swab of the surrounding area of the stain should be taken using a sterile swab (Derbyshire Constabulary 2008). The wet stain should then be swabbed using a dry, sterile swab (Derbyshire Constabulary 2008). The swabs should be returned to their tubes immediately, and should be stored frozen as soon as possible (Derbyshire Constabulary 2008). Again, a batch control of the swab should be exhibited separately (Derbyshire Constabulary 2008). If a removable power point has an area of wet blood on it, then the entire object should be exhibited and left to dry in a drying room at the police station.Often at crime scenes, stains that are composed of unknown substances can easily be confused with blood. Identifying whether a substance is blood allows further analysis to confirm species, and the individual (Spalding 2006).II.IV Presumptive Tests for BloodJames and Nordby (2005) say that a presumptive test is one which allows the scen es of crime officer to make a qualified conclusion that blood is present in the tested sample, when positive. They also say that when a test is negative, stains that ingest no further consideration are eliminated. Presumptive tests may be recognize as those that produce a visible colour reaction or those that result in the release of light (James and Nordby 2005). Both of these rely on the catalytic properties of blood to drive the reaction (James and Nordby 2005). Lee, Palmbach and Miller (2001) write this as a chemical reactionAH2 + H2O2 A + 2H2OOxidisable chemical Hydrogen peroxide Haeme Oxidised(colourless) (peroxidise)James and Nordby (2005) state that catalytic tests involve the chemical oxidation of a chromogenic substance by an oxidising agent catalyzed by the presence of blood. They also say that the catalyst of the reaction is the peroxidise-like activity of the haeme group of haemoglobin.Cox (2004) describes the attributes that a good presumptive test for blood should be sensitive, specific, quick, simple and safe. In order for presumptive tests for blood to function properly, they must detect a component of blood (Tobe, Watson and Daid 2007). Most presumptive tests therefore act on the peroxidise activity of haemoglobin. This component is not found in the familiar environment, but other substances found in items such as return and vegetables perform a similar function (Tobe, Watson and Daid 2007).A very popular presumptive method is the phenolphthalein test, which is also known as the Kastle- Meyer test (Virkler and Lednev 2009). Lee, Palmbach and Miller (2001) say that the Kastle-Meyer test was introduced in 1901 by Kastle. Phenolphthalein will cause an alkaline solution to turn pink after it has been alter by peroxide when blood is present (Spalding 2006). The reagent consists of reduced phenolphthalein in alkaline solution, which is oxidised by peroxide in the presence of haemoglobin (James and Nordby 2005). The test result is normally imm ediate, and a positive result a minute or more after the test is performed is usually not considered as bona fide (James and Nordby 2005). It has a sensitivity of 1100,000 (Lee, Palmbach and Miller 2001).James and Nordby (2005) say that Adler and Adler in 1904 investigated the reduced or colourless form (leuco) of the dye malachite green, which is also referred to as McPhails reagent. This test involves the Leuco base of malachite green (Lillie 1969). Leucomalachite Green oxidation is catalyzed by haeme to produce a green colour (James and Nordby 2005). The reaction is usually carried out in an acid medium with hydrogen peroxide as the oxidiser (James and Nordby 2005). It has a sensitivity of 1 20,000 (Lee, Palmbach and Miller 2001).Bluestar is a luminol preparation developed by Professor Loic Blum in France that is extremely sensitive and stable and produces a very bright, long lasting chemiluminescence (James and Nordby 2005). The extreme sensitivity of Bluestar Forensic allows d etections of bloodstains down to 110,000 dilutions (Bluestar Forensic 2004). It does not require total darkness to be visible, and works well on either fresh blood or old bloodstains (Bluestar Forensic 2004). Bluestar works by mixing the Bluestar Forensic solution with Bluestar Forensic tablets, which is then left to dissolve. This is sprayed onto the area of suspected blood. A positive result will cause a bluish luminescence (Bluestar Forensic 2004).The Hemastix test, created by Miles Laboratories in 1992, is particularly useful when solutions can be hazardous, or awkward (James and Nordby 2005). The test consists of a plastic strip with a reagent treated dribble tab at one end (James and Nordby 2005). The tab contains TMB, diisopropylbenzene, dihydroperoxide, buffering materials and non reactants (James and Nordby 2005). A bloodstain is tested by moistening a swab with distilled water, sampling the stain, and touching the swab onto the reagent tab on the strip (James and Nordby 2005). The tab is normally yellow, and turns form orangeness to green or blue when positive.Quality control testing is undeniable and should be completed with known blood samples on every new batch of test reagents to verify that the reagents are working as anticipate (Lee, Palmbach and Miller 2001).II.V False PositivesSutton (1999) points out that a false positive is an unpatterned positive test result obtained with a substance other than blood. James and Nordby (2005) say that misleading results can be attributed toChemical oxidants (often producing a reaction before the application of peroxide)Plant materials (vegetable peroxidises are thermolabile)Materials of animal origin (that contain traces of blood).Substances that produce false positives generally take detectably longer to react and, therefore, may be eliminated through observational interpretation (Tobe, Watson and Daid 2007).False positives were initially noted only with copper salts (Glaister 1926).Tobe, Watson and Daid (2007) state that saliva, semen, potato, tomato, tomato sauce, tomato sauce with meat, red onion, red kidney bean, horseradish, 0.1 ascorbic acid, 5% bleach, 10% cupric sulphate, 10% ferric sulphate and 10% nickel chloride are all known false positives.Bluestar False Positives (2008) say that Bluestar has false positives that include oil based paint, alkyd varnish, turnip, banana, leek, green bean, carrot, ginger, manganese sulphate, copper sulphate, iron sulphate and atomic number 19 permanganate.Lee, Palmbach and Miller (2001) write that many household cleaning products contain oxidising agents that can produce false positives. Many fruit and vegetables produce false positives including apples, horseradish and broccoli (Lee, Palmbach and Miller 2001).Bleach is a false positive that provides an (immediate and impetuous reaction) according to Gardner (2005). Hunt et al (1960) say that faeces often gave a false positive depending on the food that had been eaten previously.Pon ce and Pascual (1999) state that puke juice added to a bloodstain can cause a positive result due to its acidity.A false negative is when there is some prophylactic with the oxidation-reduction reaction, normally in the presence of a strong trim down agent, which results in a delay of the oxidation reaction thus resulting in a coloured formation (Lee, Palmbach and Miller 2001). False negatives are less common but problematic as an actual blood sample may be overlooked or left at the scene (Lee, Palmbach and Miller 2001).Many of the false positive reactions can be place during the presumptive testing procedure if any changes observed and the exact point in the reaction of these changes is recorded and compared to that of blood (Lee, Palmbach and Miller 2001).Chapter III. Experimental methodological analysisI will be investigating known substances previously reported by other authors that show a false positive and then analysing other substances similar to those already known to s ee if these also produce a false positive.III.I Project Design distributively of the substances will need to be repeated to ensure a wide enough range of consistent results. Therefore, a power grid will be drawn on a piece of Perspex measuring 1.5m2, and a piece of filter paper placed in each of the grid spaces, to allow the even distribution of substances and to allow the easy identification of false positives.BloodKnown FalsePositivesUnknowns12312A refreshed technique to detect metabolites from a single drop of bloodBNew technique to detect metabolites from a single drop of bloodCNew technique to detect metabolites from a single drop of bloodFigure 4- A diagram to illustrate an example of the project layout.For each of the presumptive reagents tested, the filter paper in each grid space will be exposed to a substance to be tested. This will be allowed to dry for a minimum of 1 hour. distributively substance will then be tested with a reagent. Each substance will be repeated three times to give a fair indication of performance. The time taken for a substance to register a positive result will be recorded. If a colour change occurs then the test will be classed as positive. If no colour change is noted within 5 minutes of the reagent being added, then the test will be classed as negative.III.II judge PreparationThe substances that I have chosen to analyse are known false positives as reported by other authors and then substances allied to known false positives.Known false positives to be testedHorseradish. tomato plant Sauce.Red Onion.Turnip.Lemon Juice.Bleach Solution (5%).Unknown substances to be testedBrown Sauce.BBQ Sauce.Radish.Dark Chocolate.Orange Juice.Bleach Solution (less than 5%).III.III excerption of Presumptive TestsI have chosen to use the following presumptive reagents to test substances for false positivesKastle-Meyer.Hemastix.McPhails.Bluestar.III.IV Control TestsI will test all of the presumptive tests on blank filter paper before perform ance to test with substances. This ensures that there is no reaction from the filter paper to the presumptive tests. I shall also test all of the presumptive tests with horse blood before proceeding to test with substances. This shows that the tests do recognise a sample of blood.I have chosen to use 2.5g of each substance as I feel this is an amount that is representative of a stain at a scene.Blood is reported to have been diluted to 1myriad in previous tests, and as this dilution has proved the most successful, I have chosen to use this dilution.REARRANGE + FINISH

Reduce The Incidence Perioperative Hypothermia Health And Social Care Essay

Reduce The Incidence Perioperative Hyp differentmia Health And Social Care proveA Summary of fewer than 150 words should state the advise of the admit or investigation, basic procedures, main findings (giving actual results non honest a broad description) and their statistical significance ( apply actual p values), and lead-in conclusions. The Summary should not be structured nor in note or abbreviated form. It should not state that the results are discussed or that work is presented. Abbreviations should not be hired except for units of measurement. Use the uniform order when discussing the methods and results as in the main form of the text, and always mention the groups in the aforesaid(prenominal) order.IntroductionPerioperative hypothermia, defined as a event temperature below 36C, is still one of the near common side effects of world-wide anaesthesia (1, 12) and results from low preoperative amount temperatures (19), anaesthetic- bring forth inhibition of ther mor e(prenominal)gulatory defenses with redistribution of hot up later foundation of anaesthesia combined with a cold surgical environment, authorities of unwarmed intravenous fluids, and evaporation from surgical incisions (25).Several prospective, randomized trials and keep goingward studies concord shown that perioperative hypothermia is associated with numerous obstinate effects and outcomes (24). Following genius and make love mental process perioperative hypothermia can cause delayed extubation, the development of early perioperative harm complications e.g. deal seromas, and flap dehiscence (2, 26). Although the authors of these studies recomm eat up active war bitg for diligents at stake for intraoperative hypothermia (2, 26) most patients are not actively warmed during organise and get laid surgery.The purpose of this prospective, randomized, controlled assume was to test the hypothesis that the use of a unused semiconducting warm up system (PerfecTemp, The Laryngeal Mask Company Limited, St. Helier, Jersey) in combination with insulant is superior to reduce the incidence of intraoperative and surgical hypothermia during head and have sex surgery compared to insulation only.MethodsAfter approval of the protocol by our local hospital ethics committee, 40 patients were recruited. Written, informed consent was obtained from both patients on the day prior to anaesthesia and surgery. all patients in the choose were required to be adults between 18 and 75 yrs, to have American Society of Anesthesiology physical status I-III and to undergo elective, head or neck surgery that was scheduled to stomach between 90 min and clxxx min.The exclusion criteria were age 75 yr body mass major business office 30 kg/m preoperative temperature 38C or 180 min.All patients were premedicated with 7.5 mg oral midazolam. General anaesthesia was induced with propofol (2 to 2.5 mg per kg of body weight) and remifentanil (0.2-0.5g/kg) followed by rocu ronium (0.4-0.6 mg/kg) to facilitate tracheal intubation. Anaesthesia was maintained with infusions of remifentanil and propofol titrated to maintain adequate anaesthetic depth and hemodynamic stability.The ambient temperature of the O.R. was 19C. Sublingual temperatures were measured preoperatively with an electronic thermometer (Geratherm rapid, Geratherm Medical AG, Geschwenda, Ger some(prenominal)). During solely measurements, sublingual placement and mouth closure was carried out by appendage of the study team (A.R.) experienced in the use of this device. Following induction, until the end of surgery, oesophageal temperatures were measured every 15 proceeding using a temperature analyze (TEMPRECISE 4-1512-A, Arizant International Corp. Eden Prairie, MN, USA) inserted 30 to 35 cm into the distal oesophageus.All patients were identified through the daily surgical schedule. A computer generated randomization list with four blocks of ten patients was used to allocate patients t o either the discussion group (conductive heat and insulation) or control group (insulation only).In the discourse group the patients were viewed supine on the conductive heating mattress (190.5 cm x 50.8 cm) (LMA PerfecTemp, The Laryngeal Mask Company Limited, St. Helier, Jersey) placed on the run hold over, as suggested by the manufacturer. Then the patients were immediately insulated with a standard hospital eiderdown (188 cm x 122 cm), filled with Trevira (100% polyester) (Brinkhaus GmbH Co. KG, Warendorf, Germany) with an insulation value of 1.29 clo (6). The conductive patient warming system was set to a temperature of 40.5C throughout the study and warming was stopped when the oesophageal temperature was 37.5C.Patients of the control group were positioned supine on the operating table and were immediately insulated with the standard hospital duvet.All intravenous fluids were infused at room temperature. The era of anaesthesia and surgery ( season from flake incisi on to last suture) were recorded.Power analysis, assuming a clinically important reduction in the incidence of intraoperative and postoperative hypothermia from 50 % to 90% suggested that eleven patients were required in from each one group ( = 0.05 = 0.2). To compensate for unexpected dropout of patients with a shorter or long-life duration of surgery than planned the initial total number of recruited patients was increase to 20 patients in each group.Comparisons of nominal data were do using the Fishers exact test. A Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used prior to parametric interrogatory to ascertain that values came from a Gaussian distribution. Comparisons of normally distributed data were made using the Students t-test. Comparisons of not normally distributed data were made using the Mann-Whitney-U test. Time-dependent changes of bone marrow temperature were evaluated using repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) and post hoc Scheffs test. Results are verbalised as r egard ass SD or as median and interquantil range as appropriate. A value for p ResultsA total of 86 patients were assessed for eligibility. 25 patients could not be asked to participate, because they came to the hospital on the day of the operation. 21 patients refused to participate. Of the 40 patients recruited, 10 patients had to be excluded because of an operating time below 60 minutes (five patients in the treatment and four in the control group) or to a higher place 180 minutes (one patient).Figure 1 Flow diagram of the studyIn iii patients the conductive warming mattress did not fully heating up to 40.5C for unknown technical reasons. These patients were still included in the data analyses. Data were therefore complete for 15 patients in each group. Patient characteristics, ambient temperature of the O.R., core temperatures sooner induction of anaesthesia and duration of surgery were not different (table 1).Table 1 Patient characteristics and perioperative variables. se t are presented as mean values SD, median and interquantil range IQR or numbers of patients.VariableTreatment group (n = 15)Control group (n = 15)P-value fester yr511851150.99Sex m/f7/810/50.46Height cm17311175100.64 slant kg74168090.21Temperature of the O.R C1911910.3Core temperature before induction of anaesthesia C36.10.435.90.50.33 sequence from lay on the conductive warming mattress to induction of anaesthesia min7 IQR 5-9Duration of anaesthesia min11828122380.74Duration of surgery min9725103370.61The ANOVA identified a significantly higher core temperature in the treatment group at 45, 60, 75, 90, 105 and 120 min (Figure 2). Further testing was futile as there were only three patients with a longer duration of surgery included.Figure 2 squiffy pre- and intraoperative temperatures of the treatment group and control group. Error bars represent SD. In each group data were complete for at least 60 minutes.Furthermore, Fisherss exact test confirmed a lower incidence of intraope rative (3 vs. 9 patients p = 0.03) and postoperative hypothermia (0 vs. 6 patients p = 0.008) in the treatment group. However, the mean duration of hypothermia was not significantly shorter in the treatment group (5517 min vs. 8051 min p = 0.42). No adverse effects could be observed.DiscussionThis prospective, randomized, controlled study demonstrates that, during head and neck surgery under general anaesthesia, a conductive warming mattress combined with insulation significantly reduces the incidence of intraoperative and postoperative hypothermia compared to insulation only. With this approach the incidence of intraoperative and postoperative hypothermia could be reduced significantly. However, the mean intraoperative duration of mild hypothermia could not be reduced significantly.Redistribution of body heat from the core to the periphery was unusually depleted in this study and similar in both groups as core temperature decreased only 0.1C in the control group and 0.2C in the st udy group. In most clinical studies redistribution of heat subsequently induction of anaesthesia leads to a reduction in core temperature of some 0.3C to 0.8 C (3, 4, 8, 28) in the first hour whereas under experimental conditions it can reach up to 1.7C (17). This small decrease in core temperature may be explained by the fact that patients were kept easily warm during the whole preoperative period (ward, transport to the O.R. and induction of anaesthesia) with the same good insulating hospital blanket as used intraoperatively. This approach refers to the late(a) NICE guideline Inadvertent perioperative hypothermia. The management of inadvertent perioperative hypothermia in adults (22).Patients during head and neck surgery are often thought to have a relatively low risk for perioperative hypothermia because in most cases no body cavity is opened, the surgical incisions as well as blood losses are small. This is probably why there are almost no studies about perioperative hypoth ermia and its prevention during head and neck surgery. However, many patients undergoing head and neck surgery are prone to hypothermia by advanced age (2, 14, 27) and pubic louse with associated malnutrition and low body weight (2, 16). According to their preoperative risk indite (e.g. ischemic heart disease, diabetes mellitus, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, preoperative radiotherapy, preoperative chemotherapy) (20, 26) they are often vulnerable to hypothermia associated complications. These complications include an increase incidence of myocardial ischemia (10, 11, 11) which is also a relevant complication after reconstructive head and neck surgery (7), augmenting blood loss (23), decreasing fortress to surgical wound infections or increasing local wound complications (2, 15, 18, 26), therefrom prolonging hospitalization.The few existing studies were particularly focused on longer trading operations like parotidectomies, neck dissections (2) and reconstructive surgery with free tissue or regional flaps (13, 26). In the study of Agrawal et al. (2) the incidence of perioperative hypothermia was 65% in the unwarmed group showing clearly the high risk of perioperative hypothermia in patients during head and neck surgery. In our study with relatively short operations we observed an incidence of perioperative hypothermia of 40% in the control group. In personal line of credit to the study of Agrawal et al. (2) we used a high insulation of 1.29 clo for these patients which is much more than the insulation value of most commercially available materials designed for use in the operating room. With this insulation heat losses from the covered skin can be reduced about 70%. (6). In most of our patients this insulation was able to maintain a stable thermal stiff state with a relative constant core temperature. However, this thermal ravisher state was at a core temperature of about 36.0C with many patients being hypothermic.In general the efficacy of post erior patient-warming systems is limited (5, 9, 13, 21). These devices have the dis advantage that warming the back of the patient in the supine position is suboptimal. During surgery, little heat is lost from the back (9) and heat gain via the back is also limited, resulting in a small change in heat balance. However, in this special setting the additional heat generated by the conductive warming system leads to a positive thermal balance and an increasing core temperature after 30 minutes. In contrast to conventional go around water mattresses the new conductive system is made of thick elastic foam. This material enhances skin senses between the mattress and the back, thereby reducing thermal contact resistance and increasing the efficacy of heat exchange.In contrast to forced-air warming the combination of good insulation and conductive warming has several(prenominal) advantages. in that location are no expensive disposables elements, low be for maintenance, low power consump tion and no relevant noise emission (28). Another advantage is that is very easy to use the system for prewarming as soon as the patient can be placed on the operating table when the controller unit is mounted at the operating table.Our study has several limitations. First, two different anatomic locations were used to measure core temperature (oral temperature before induction of anaesthesia and oesophageal during general anaesthesia). However, both methods are reasonable methods for core temperature measurements and we could record the first authentic oesophageal temperature 5 minutes after induction of anaesthesia so that this temperature can serve as a reliable starting temperature.Second, five patients per group had to be excluded from data analyses because the operation time was shorter or longer than planned. Nevertheless, we had to exclude these patients because it is not advisable to compare operations with durations of 30 minutes with operations of more than 3 hours.Final ly we did not fully take advantage of the possibility to prewarm our patients with the conductive system. On reasonable time from the beginning of warming to induction of anaesthesia was only heptad minutes. It seems to be likely that longer prewarming periods would enhance the efficacy of the conductive warming mattress.ConclusionThe combination of good thermal insulation and conductive warming is effective to prevent perioperative hypothermia during head and neck surgery. In contrast to other warming methods there are no expensive disposables, low costs for maintenance, low power consumption and no relevant noise emssion.